Biota and environment

Biota and Environment

• Environment pollution

• Animal behaviour

• Conservation of wildlife

Environment pollution: - The word pollution means make dirty. Sources of pollution are industries, factory, nuclear energy power, pesticides, petroleum, smoke and plastic.

            Pollution is the undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological features of air, water and land. Pollutants are two types.

i.   Non-degradable: - the pollutants which do not degrade or decay and remain in nature for long time are called non-degradable pollutants. Examples are aluminum, mercurial salts, DDT, glasses, plastics etc.

ii.  Degradable pollutants: - The pollutants which degrade or decay easily by decomposer are called degradable pollutants. Examples are domestic sewage, fertilizers etc. These pollutants increase fertility of soil.

Air pollution: - Air pollution is the undesirable change in physical or biotic elements of air. The pollutants are harmful to human, vegetation or animals.

Sources

i.  Automobiles — Cars, buses, truck, bike etc

ii.                  Electric power plants — Thermal stations and generators

iii. Industries —  papers mills, cotton mills, chemical plants, sugar mills, rubber mills, bricks and lather factory

iv. Heating plants — domestic coal, fuels for cooking etc.

Causes (factors) and their effect

i.  So₂ — It is released on combustion of petroleum products by automobiles and burning of coal. It is form sulfuric acid reacting with air and water and caused acid-rain. Burning of eyes, asthma and skin diseases are caused in human.

ii.                    Carbon monoxide (co)— It is released on burning of coal, old vehicles, smoke of cigarettes, industrial plants etc. In man it produces headache nausea, heart palpation and difficulty in breathing.

iii. Lead — It is heavy metal mix in atmosphere from automobiles. In man, it damages liver, kidney and gastro intestine and impair fertility and pregnancy. In excess lead, RBC does not mature and cause anemia.

iv. Aerosols — It contain fluorocarbon (CFC) produce from air-plane, jet etc. these deplete ozone layer and UV rays directly come to earth and causes skin diseases and eye problems.

v.   Co₂ — More amount of co₂   produces from burning fossil fuels and deforestation. Effects are green house and global warming.

vi. Smoke — Smoke released from houses and factories and mixes in atmosphere cement factory, brick factory are major sources of smoke. Soil dust, pollen grains microbes causes several allergic reactions to human. Smoke causes health hazard and ill-effect on city –vegetation.

vii.  Nitrogen oxides (No and No₂) — These oxides increases in atmosphere through chemical fertilizers. Different oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons react in presence of sun UV rays and from toxic substances proxy acetyl nitrate (PAN) and photochemical oxidants. It causes stinging of eyes, coughing headache, dry-throat, pulmonary congestion.

Preventive Measures or Control  

1.   Electrostatic filter should be used in industries.

2.   Use of less sulphurized fuel.

3.   Alternative sources of energy should be used to avoid pollution. (solar energy, wind energy, electrical energy)

4.   Old-vehicles should be removed.

5.   Plantation should be done on roadside and around factory and industries.

6.   Population growth rate should be controlled.

7.   Public awareness

Water pollution:-

 Water pollution is the undesirable change in physical and biotic elements of water.

Sources of water pollution

i.     Industrial sources — chemical wastes and poison.

ii.   Domestic sources — sewage, detergents etc.

iii. Agriculture sources — pesticides, chemical fertilizer.

iv. Oil — automobiles and tankers

v.   Physical pollutions — radioactive, nuclear subs.

Causes and their effects

i.     Inorganic and organic substances — These are released from dairy tanners, paper mills which reduce the oxygen content of water.

ii.   Domestic wastes and sewage — About 75% water pollution is caused by domestic waste and sewage. It spread water borne diseases and toxic substances to kill the useful living organisms and destroy the biological activity.

iii. Hot water — Large amount of hot water causes serious thermal pollution.

iv. Poison — Acids, alkaline, lead, copper, cyanides reduce oxygen transporting capacity of blood in human.

v.   Spilled oil — River, oceans get polluted from oil tanker. It decreases oxygenation in water.

vi. Pesticides, insecticides and fungicides — These are taken by aquatic organisms through food chain.

vii.  Nitrates and phosphates — In water those chemicals of fertilizers cause eutrophication which decrease oxygen level in water.

Preventive measures

i.      Recycling of waste product

ii.   Treatment and cleaning of polluted water before releasing in sources of water.

iii. Control of distribution of industries.

iv. Proper drainage

v.   Minimum use of pesticides

vi. Education

vii.  Legislative measures

Soil or land pollution — Soil or land pollution deals with the pollution of soil and affects a biotic community of soil.

Sources of soil pollution

i.     Industrial sources — These are inorganic and substance those are inorganic and organic substance like poisons, heavy metals, plastic, aluminum etc.

ii.   Domestic source — Domestic sewage, detergents

iii. Agriculture sources — Pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers etc.

iv. Radioactive source —  Nuclear dusts and radioactive substance

v.   Overgrazing and deforestation — Soil become loose and easily eroded by water

All above substances cause toxicity in the soil and decrease the quality of soil. These adversely affect the soil-organisms and other useful organism.

Preventive measures

i.     Use of chemical — fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides should be minimized.

ii.   Waste should be recycled

iii. Well managed dumping sites.

iv. Organic wastes and animals refuge can be used for production of bio-gas.

Types of pesticides and effects

i.     Organocholorides — DDT, BHC, aldrin etc,

ii.   Orgnophosphates — parathion, malathion diazion etc

iii. Carbamates — baygon, temic, pyrethrins etc.

iv. Pyrethroids — pesticides of plant origin nicotine from tobacco leaf and other like neem plant, Artemisia leaf.

v.    Insecticides and rodenticides are zinc phosphate, arsenic, compounds. Herbicides are phenoxy acids fungicides are HCN, methyl bromide etc.

Mode of action — Either nervous of respiratory poision. Organocholrides are nervous poisions. They reach nerve fibers and inhibit Na⁺, k⁺ and Mg⁺⁺ ATPase activity in the synapsis of insects. Respiratory poisions enter through spiracles and cause nausea, vomiting and nervousness leading to death.

Effects of pesticides

i.     Environment pollution — Organochlorides have longer lifetime so persist and accumulate in environment and associate with food chain.

ii.   Kill useful organisms — Natural enemies of pest (predators, paracites and pathogens) are also killed by pesticides.

iii. Affect the biology of organisms — Decline in reproduction of some animals ca-deficiency of birds, delay in ovulation are caused by pesticide.

iv. Increase resistance — Pests develop resistance or immunity against pesticides and high dose of pesticides should use to protect crops hence increase environmental pollution.

Alternative of pesticides

I.Biological control — Predators, parasites and pathogens kill and destroy the many type of pest. These are birds, fishes, bacteria etc.

II.Culture control — Rotation of crop, ploughing and expose on sunlight etc.

      Integrated pest management (IMP). It is control and management of pest population integrating biological, chemical and culture ways. It is very economical, ecological and environmental safe.

Animal behaviour — Reactions or expressions of organisms in response to the stimuli is called animal behaviour. Stimuli are:

Physical — Heat, light, touch, sound etc

Chemicals — acids, base, salts, air, water etc.

Study of behaviour is called ethology. Who study animal behaviour is called ethologist. Father of ethology is knorad Lorenz.

Types of animal behaviour are two:

1.   Innate or stereolyped behaviour — It is inborn behaviour. These are reflexes, taxes, migration, dominance social behaviour, courtship (activity to attract opposite sex) mating, territorial behaviour etc. it is long lived.

2.   Learned behaviour — The behaviour which develop in life after birth. These are singing, swimming. It is short kived.

Reflex action — it is sudden involuntary action of organism. It is stereotype behaviour first studied by Marshall Hall in 1833. Examples are sneezing, cough reflex, hunger salivation, eye-blanking etc. sensory nerves and motor nerves involve for it.

 Mechanism of Reflex Action — It compares four steps — reception, condition, modulation and effect. The path which is formed by the step is called reflex action.

The flow of impulses in a reflex arc is unidirectional which is as follows:

1.   Reception (sensory organs)

2.   Conduction (sensory nerve)

3.   Modulation (brain/spinal cord)

4.   Conduction (motor nerve)

5.   Effect (muscle or glands)

           

Fig: various components of reflex arc

Types of reflexes

1)   Unconditioned reflex — It is an inborn behaviour. E.g. eye blinking.

2)   Conditioned reflex — It is induced or developed type. E.g. salivation by dog due to bell-ring.

Taxes (Pl: taxes) — A tax is defined as the movement or orientation of organisms in response or orientation organisms in response to external stimulus (pl-stimuli). Stimuli may be

Physical: light, heat, touch.

Chemical: Acid, base, sales, hormones, enzymes, etc.

   When organism move or orient toward stimuli is called positive taxis. When organism move away from stimuli is called negative taxis.

Types of Taxes

1.   Phototaxis — It is the movement or orientation of organisms is response to light.  For example earthworm shows –VE photo taxis to light. Euglena show the photo taxis to light.

2.   Chemotaxis — It is the movement or chemicals. For examples, Earthworm move away from dil. HCL. (-VE chemo taxis) and the chemo taxis with glucose.

3.   Geotaxis — It is the movement or orientation of organisms in response to center of gravity. For example: Earthworm show the geo taxis.

4.   Rheotaxis — It is the movement or to water current. Some fishes show the rhea taxis and some shows –VE rhea taxis.

5.   Klinotaxis — When the sensory organs are distributed on dorsal side of anterior part of an organism, organism move body up-down or side wise to receive the stimuli called Kline taxis. Euglena shows photo-Kline taxis.  

6.   Tropo taxis — It is orientation of organism is straight path due to bilaterally symmetric body. Lice, plan aria, show photo hop taxis.

7.   Talo axis – It is orientation of organism towards any one of stimulus between two stimuli. For example honey bees are oriented toward pollen of flower due to light stimulation.  

8.   Menotaxis — It is change of orientation due to slight change in direction of stimuli. For example ant and honey bee changes their direction in relation to position of sun.

9.   Thermotaxis — It is movement or orientation of organisms in response to heat. For examples, earthworm shows negative thermotaxis to extreme heat.

Q.Write two differences between taxis and tropism

Dominance:-

                      Dominance is a process by which one dominates other members of its colony by aggression or threat. It is both inborn and learned types of behaviour. Examples are:

i.      Female dog dominates over males during breeding season.

ii.    The dogs threats its counterparts by snoring, posing their teeth.

iii.   Among cattle there will be pawing the ground, butting and making so und of different sorts.

Leadership — It is innate types of behaviour. It is guidance to the member of its group. Examples are:

i.     Leadership of female red deer is noticeable. She also takes care of the group.

ii.   In birds also, a leader bird takes care of the herd.

iii. In baboons socially dominant individual behave as leader

iv. In monkey (Allouatta) some male produce an uttering sound for a suitable path, other member hear them and then follow.

In rhesius money, leadership and dominance go together. One adult matured elephant becomes a leader to find water and food. Others follow him/her.

Migratory behaviour of fish and bird

Migrate means travel (Latin). Migration is defined as the regular, periodic movement of animals from one place to other in response to environment changes.

1.   Fish migration — Few fish are migratory. Resident fishes do not migrate. American eel (Anguilla angilla), hilsa, salamon (salmo sp) etc are migratory fishes.

Typed of migration

1.   Diadromous — Migration between sea to river and vice-versa. It is of three:

i.     Anadromous — It is migration of fishes from sea to river for breeding example salmon, hilsa etc.

ii.   Catadromous — It is migration of fishes from river to sea for breeding Example American eel.

iii. Amphidromous — It is migration of fishes from sea water to river water and vice- versa not for breeding may be for feeding. Example gobies fish.

2.   Patamodormous — Migration in fresh water only (in river lakes etc) for travelling long distances. Example gobies fish

3.   Ocenodromous — Migration Sea water only for spawing. Example are Atlantic herrings, tuna etc.

i.     Alimental or feeding migration — Cold fish, ehinese, carp, grass carp migrate in sea to search food and spawing.

ii.   Gametic or spawning migration — It is migration of fish for better development and protection of eggs and fries. Example — salmon. Parents die soon after spawing (salmon)

iii. Climatic or wintering migration — It is the migration of fish due to physical and metabolic changes if fishes in changing climatic conditions. In warm water (above 21) metabolic rate of fish becomes high.

Cause of migration

1.   Physical factor — Heat, light, water current, turbidity (clearness of water), depthness, pressure, bottom material etc are physical factors due to which fishes migrate from one place to another place.

2.   Chemical factor — salinity of (salt) water, PH, smell, test etc are chemical factors.

3.   Biological factors — External — food-shortage, presence of predators and competitors. Internal factor — hormonal, sexual maturity blood pressure, food memory etc.

Advantages of fish migration

1.   Find better climate

2.   Better availability of food

3.   Better adaptability

4.   Promote distribution of fishes

Disadvantages

1.   Loss of life in travel by predators

2.   Loss of life in travel by tsunami cyclone etc.

3.   Loss of energy

2.   Bird migration — definition is like fish

Special features of migratory birds

1.   Many bird if northern hemispheres are migratory in nature than south.

2.   Migration of bird I. Diurnal II. Nocturnal III. Or both

3.   Altitude and velocity of migration varies from 900km — 1525 km and 50km/hr velocity.

4.   Golden plover of America travel about 11,590 km from Alaska to South America.

5.   Young ones follow adult.

6.   Identification of route by mountain line marks, waistline, course of river flow, sun, stars, air current, smell etc.

Cause of migration

1.   Physical factors — Temperature is the most important factor of migration of bird being warm blooded. There are more migratory birds in Canada than in North America as Canada is far north and cooler to USA.

2.   Biological factor (hormonal) — Gonadotrophic hermon produce by pituitary (FSH, LH) stimulate gonads which affect central nervous system for migration.

3.   Shortage of food — Scarcity of food takes place south hemisphere in winter and north hemisphere in cold seasons and season cause the bird to migrate.

Types of migration

1.   Longitudinal — Migrate from east to west and vice-versa. Starling bird migrates from east Europe to Atlantic west.

2.   Latitudinal — Migrate from northern hemisphere to south hemisphere and vice-versa. The golden plover of North America to Argentina to find warmer place.

3.   Altitudinal or vertical — Migrate from higher altitude to lower altitude of mountains and vice-versa wool cock migrate from plains to slope of Himalayas in Nepal (9500 ft).

4.    Seasonal — Migrate at beginning of one season and return at the end of that season is called seasonal migration. In British the birds like swallows have seasonal migration.

5.   Daily or local — Migrate in early morning to their feeding places in the evening. Examples are house sparrow, crows etc.

6.   Cyclic — Migrate in every three to five years but not at regular intervals. Example snowing owl of USA.

Modes of migration — The migratory birds are swallows, orient themselves by the position of the sun. The nocturnal migratory birds migrate at night or in day. Nocturnal migratory birds get direction by the position of the stars and moon.

Advantages and disadvantages of migration same like fish.

Animal adaptation — The fitness or acclimatization or adjustment of animals with their habitat is called adaptation. The term adaptation is first used by H.F. Os born (1902).

Types of adaptation — There are three types of adaptations:

1.   Aquatic adaptation

2.   Amphibious adaptation

3.   Terrestrial adaptation

1.   Aquatic adaptation — It is defined as the change that occurred in animals to suit in aquatic habitat.

A.   Primary aquatic adaptation — only live in water, these are fishes, whales, dolphins etc. Adaptational features are:

i.     Streamlined body— Body is spindle shaped and laterally compressed to reduce friction caused by water.

ii.    Presence of fins – locomotion take space by different t types of fins. Pectoral fins, pelvic fins, dorsal fins anal fins and caudal fins. 

iii.   Respiratory gills – These are respiratory organs to exchange gases (o₂ and co₂) in water.

iv.  Scales – scales cover body scales protect body from water current and external injury.

v.    Cold-blooded—Due to the nature fishes can tolerate changes in temperature of water.

vi.  Air bladder—Air bladder is an outgrowth of water. It helps in floating. In others it functions in breathing (dolphin, whales).

vii.  Lateral line— It detects pressure and temperature changes. The line is stimulated by slow vibration of the body.

viii.            Osmoregulation — It is a process of maintaining salt and water balance in animals. Fishes have special chloride cells present in gills to balance salt in body.

ix. Nictitating membrane — It is also called third eye-lid. It protect eye from dirty water and ensure clear vision in water.

B.  Secondary aquatic adaptation — Live partically water and land. Fox examples adaptation of aquatic mammal, amphibians, and aquatic reptiles etc.

i.     Fish like shape — It is suited for active locomotion in water. Most of water-snake, turtle etc.

ii.   Shorting of neck — The cervical nertebrae are fused helps in swimming in water.

iii. Locomatory organs — Limbs have webbed digits. In marine turtles and sea-cows forelimbs are modified into paddles.

iv. Respiration — Lungs are highly elastic to store much air so animals can spend long time in water. (whale) 

v.   Lightness of bones — Bones are light and spongy to float easily.

vi.  Absence of hair skin glands like fish.

vii.  Modification of skull — cranium is shortened and produce into pointed snout to reduce resistance of water.

viii.  Lateral line system like fishes.

2.   Arboreal (scansorial) adaptation — It is adaptation for climbing trees walls, rocks etc. monkey, wall-lizard chameleon, tree-snake have these adaptation. Scansorial or arboreal animals may be of three types

i.     Wall and rock climbers — They are able to climb on walls of houses and rocky surfaces example wall-lizards, flying squirrels.

ii.   Terrestrio — Arboreal forms — They are able climb on tree but rest beneath the trees. Rarely form nests in the trees. Example squirrel, sloth.

iii. Arboreal forms — They are perfectly tree-dwelling animals and make home in the trees. Example chameleon, gibbons.

Adaptational features

1.   Stout body contour — Body is strong due to sub circular ribs, numerous ribs to support viscera.

2.   Dry skin — skin is dry and covered by epidermal scales to avoid loss of water by evaporation process.

3.   Girdle bones (pelvic Girdle and pectoral girdle) are strong to support weight of the body.

4.   Limbs — limbs are strong can bear eight of body.

Ø   Claws are well developed (squirrel)

Ø   Porcupine has spines on their soles.

Ø   Adhesive pads are present on tip of digits.

Ø   Lamellae are present on ventral side digits create vacuum and attach on wall

Ø   Chameleon is syndactyle of first 3 fingers in both fore and hind limbs.

5.   Presence of neck — Help to move head make to see different directions.

6.   Tail — Long tail help to balance the body during locomotion.

7.   Changing colour — It change body colour with respect to the surroundings in order to hide from enemies. Example chameleon.

 Volant (flying) adaptation — The adaptation is concerned with the flight.

There are two types of flights

i.     True flights — long and sustained flight.

ii.    Passive flights (gliding) — it is a leap or jumping type remains in a air for a short period.

Adaptational features for true flight

1.   Streamlined body — It causes least resistance to air during flight and increase the speed in air.

2.   Presence of feathers — Body is covered with feather to avoid loss of temperature.

3.   Presence of wings — fore limbs is modified into wings to fly (birds). In bat wings are made up fold of skin (patagium)

4.   Pneumatic bones — bones having air filled cavities for buoyancy during flight.

5.   Presence of air sacs — These are present in the lungs. Air sacs increase respiratory efficiency and lighten the body.

6.   Developed flight muscle — strong flight muscles connect wings with limb bones.

7.   Short tail — it serves as rudder in steering and balance in perching.

8.   Reduction in the body weight — Absence of teeth, lack of urinating bladder and fused vertebrate reduce body weight.

Fig: birds shoeing air sacs

For passive flight (glidding)

1.   Development of patagia (skin folds) — It is attached between fore limbs and hind limbs, extends either of trunk example Draco (flying spider).

2.   Enlargement of pectoral fins — pectoral fins are large and highly developed of flying fish (exocoetus) to make great leap.

3.   Webbed feet — In flying frog (rhacophorus) the feet are webbed to make long leaps. The digits terminate in adhesive pads which secrete sticky substance for emergency attachment.

Conservation of wild life resources

Conservation is management of nature and natural resources for the present and future generation.

Wild life — Life in natural habitat which are very difficult to domesticate.

Importance of wild life conservation

1.   Ecological balance — Balance population and mountain food chain.

2.   Medical value — both flora and fauna have medical value. Jatamasi, sugandhuwal, talispatra, panch aunle, yarsa Gumba are medicinal plants. Navel gland of musk deer similarly bone, skin, urine, stool, meat, horn, and tusk are used as medicine of different animals.

3.   Scientific value — Scientific information about habit, habitat, ecology and behaviour of flora and fauna.

4.   Survival value — The species give information since 3.5 billion years ago. A loss of any species is loss of forever.

5.   Economic value — different parts of plant and animal are source of income for the country.

6.   Genetic value — Wildlife is gene bank by which different resistance type are developed in agriculture and animal husbandry.

Status of wildlife

IUCN has listed following threatened categories

Ø   Extinct (Ex) — The species which is not reported from last 5o years in wild form is considered as extinct. Example pink head duck (rhodonessa caryophyll) in Nepal.

Ø   Endangered species(E) — These are in danger of extinct due to continue destruction of habitat, shortage of food, heavy poaching. Example wild buffalo, wild yak, snow leopard tiger etc.

Ø   Vulnerable species (V) — These are going to in endangered example black buck, red panda, gangetic dolphin etc.

Ø   Rare species (R) — These already are few in number. Going to be vulnerable.

Ø   Threatened species (T) — The species need to be protected.

Ø   Intermediate (I) — These are the species, which sufficient are not taken.

List of endangered wildlife of Nepal are

Mammals — 27 species

Birds — 9 species

Reptiles — 3 species

These are in legal protection under 1073 national parks and wildlife act.

Causes of extinction of wildlife — It is estimated that about 25000 plant species and over 1000 vertebrate are threatened with extinction.

Causes are:

1.   Habitat destruction — Deforestation, cultivation, residents, developing works, industries, mine etc destroy the habitat.

2.   Poaching — Illegal hunting of elephant, musk deer, spotted deer, tiger, rhino etc are mostly prevalent in terai.

3.   Environment pollution — Deforestation, industrialization and urbanization are major factors of pollution.

4.   International trade — Animal’s hide, fur, bones, tasks, musk similarly so many medicinal plant are trade items internationally. This has increased the loss of wild life in many countries.

5.   Over exploitation — Over grazing by domestic animals, deforestation etc has resulted into extinction of wildlife.

Conservation and management of wildlife — It include protection and right use of wild life for greatest behefit for present generation and future generation. UN conference on biodiversity in 1992 of scientists of 100 countries has been developed following strategies.

1.   Study of habitat — Critical habitat like feeding, breeding, nusery and resting areas should be studied.

2.   Protection of habitat — This above habitat should be protected to protect the animals.

3.   Improvement of habitant — Habitat should be improved as much as naturally.

4.   Statistical data — Number of protected species should be recorded (yearly as possible)

5.   International multilateral agreements — Wild-ranging animals and migratory birds cover large area of two or more countries. The strategy of save the habitat of wild life of different countries.

6.    Protection by law — Laws should be enforced to protect the animals.

7.   Wildlife research — The wild varieties which are important for biotechnology should be preserved.

8.   Construction of national parks and reseves

9.   Educating people — Formally and informally

National parks of Nepal

Chitawan national park

Area: 932 km²

Established: 1973

Location: Inner terai of south central Nepal

Features: world heritage, oldest national park of Nepal

70% sal forests, 20% grass land, 7% riverine forest, 3% sal with chirpire 43 species of mammals, endangered are-horned rhinocerous, tiger and gharial crocodile. 450 species of birds, endangered are Bengel flocrican, giant horn-bill, storks’ etc. 45 amphibians which are marsh crocodile, cobra, green pit viper etc.

Bardia national park

Area: 965 km²

Established: 197-1988

Location: mid far western terai, east Karnali River  

Features: it is largest one. 70% of park is covered by sal forest.

Mammals – rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, swamp deer, black-buck

Reptiles – gharial crocodile, dolphin

Birds – Bengal florican, sarus crane, danphe, junjle crow patridge etc.

Khaptad national park

Area: 255 km²

Established: 1984

Location: mid-mountain region of far western Nepal (bajura, doti and achham of seti-zone)

Features: It is situated about 300 melevation. Subtropical to temperate are found on the khaptad plateau. Tree species are chirpine, fir , maple, birch and rhododendron. Wide varieties of medicinal herbs occur in the park. Animals are leopard, black bear, musk deer, gheral, thar etc. colorful butter flies and moth are important feature of khaptad ecosystem.

RaRa national park

Area: 106 km²

Established: 1976

Location: north West Nepal (mugu, jumla of karnali zone)

Features: It is smallest park containing biggest lake 10.8 km² at an elevation of 2990m

Name Rara. Elevation range is 1800-4048 m. the park contain coniferous forest. Animals are musk deer, Himalayan black beer leopard, ghoral etc. birds are snoe cock. Imeyan pheasant kalij pheasant etc.

Makalu-barun national park and conservation area

Area: 2330 km² (1500+830)

Established: 1992

Location: situated in sankhuwa sabha and solukhumbu district.

Features: it is strick-nature reserve. Trees are sal birch rhodendron etc. other economically valuable medicinal and aromatic plants are found. Over 400 species of bird have been rewrded here. Animals are red panda, musk deer, Himalayan black bear, clouded leopard, barking deer etc

Shivapuri national park

Area: 144 km²

Established: 1985-2002

Location: north side of Kathmandu velley

Features: it lies altitude of 1366m to 2732m. These are main sources of water for Kathmandu. Trees are chilaune-katus, pine etc. animals are leopard, Oran-billied Himalayan squirrel etc.

Wildlife reserves of Nepal —Rare and endangered or particular animals are conserved here. Tourists are also not allowed here.

Parsa wild life reserve

Area: 499 sqkm

Established: 1985—2002

Location: north side of Kathmandu valley

Features: : churiya hills (750M-950). It has a sub-tropical monsoon climate. Trees are char pine, khair; sisal and silk cotton tree are dominated. Animal are, wild elephant, tiger, leopard, sloth bear gaur, wild dog etc. 300spenies of birds.

Koshi tappu wold life reserve 

  Area: 499sq. Km.

Established: 1984
location:  flood plain of sapta koshi in saptari and sunsari destricts.

Features: Hog deer, wild boar spotted deer are animals. Birds are ducks, storks etc. Forest are deciduous and mixed reverie wild buffalo.

Suklaphanta wild life reserve

Area: 155sq. km.

Established: 1976

Location: in kanchanpur district

Features: trees are sal, sisoo etc. Animals are (about 2500 numbers) elephant. Tiger, Leopard hog deer etc.zoo spies of birds. Python, menial lizard cobra, kraits are reptiles. 

Dhorpatan hunting reserve

Area: 1325 sq. km.

Established: 1987

Location: districts of rukum, myagdi and baglung.

Features: this is only hunting reserve in the country. Blue sheep and other game animals can be hunted. Vegetation – fir, pine, birch, rhodo Dendron etc. animals are blue sheep, leopard goral, Himalayan black bear, monkeys, musk deer, red panda etc. 

Conservation area It is an integrated management plari. The total area covered by the conservation area is 11327 sq. km.

Annapurna conservation area

The park and conservation area are situated in the sankhuwasabha and solukhumbu districts.

It occupies 7629 sq. km. of area.

It established in 1992.

Endangered red panda, musk deer Himalayan black deer, clruded leopard, wild boar, barking deer, 84 varieties of fishes and 32000 people in habit the area.

Kanchenjunga lonsorvation area

This conservation area is situated in the northen part of taple jung district.

Area: 2035 sq. km.

Established: 1997

oak forest pine forest clilanne- katush forest are found here. Show leopard, redpanda, wolf, etc are animal found here.

Manasula conservation area

Area: 1663 sq. km.

Established: 1998

Location: gorkha and manage districts.

  Different medicinal plants snow leopard, musk deer, red panda etc are found.

What is IUCN?

Full form is international union for the conservation of nature and nature resources. It was founded on act 5, 1948. Headquter is merges, Switzerland. It is world conservation union. It includes two member organization, both government and non government. It works along with and World Bank, Asian development bank UNESCO etc. IUCN maintain red list or red data book.

Purposes of the red list are:-

1.                  To create awareness on threat of biodiversity.

2.                  To identify risk-species.

3.                  Strategies of conservation.

4.                  Specific in formations for its importance.

Human responsibility for the protection of earth.

1.   Natural resources must be reused, recycled and conserved.

2.   Wild life should be protected and preserved.

3.   Environment must make free from pollution.

4.   The ecological imbalances should be minimized.

5.   People must be aware about family planning and their hygienic.